500 Level Courses
GCP 500: Global Political Economy. 1-4 credits.
Foundation course in the GCPO program. Explores issues and ideas affecting global security, stability, growth and development from country, regional and thematic perspectives. Introduces students to key concepts, policies, and practices that underpin international commerce, international relations more broadly, and non-governmental transnational activities.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment limited to students with a class of Advanced to Candidacy, Graduate, Junior Plus, Non-Degree or Senior Plus.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 501: Data Analysis for Global Political Economy. 3 credits.
Provides the skills necessary to conduct qualitative and quantitative research and analysis of data related to global political economy. Students obtain practical information on sources of data, their origins, strengths, and weaknesses. Helps develop tools for statistical analysis of data, leading up to binary regression, and includes the use of software for analyzing and displaying information. It covers major data sources and indices related to international economic policy, including trade data, economic and financial indicators, and development indicators.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment limited to students with a class of Advanced to Candidacy, Graduate, Junior Plus, Non-Degree or Senior Plus.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 503: Macroeconomic Policy in the Global Economy. 1-4 credits.
Provides an analytical introduction and overview of basic concepts in macroeconomic theory with an emphasis on applications to problems in the United States and the contemporary global economy. Covers topics such as inflation, growth and business cycles, fiscal and monetary policies, balance of payments and exchange rates.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment limited to students with a class of Advanced to Candidacy, Graduate, Junior Plus, Non-Degree or Senior Plus.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 504: Microeconomics and Trade Policy. 1-4 credits.
Provides a foundation in microeconomics, including supply and demand analysis, elasticities, the theory of the firm, allocative efficiency and market failure. Covers applications of this microeconomic foundation to international trade theory, trade policy analysis, preferential trade agreements, and international production. Emphasis is on graphical and algebraic analysis.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment limited to students with a class of Advanced to Candidacy, Graduate, Junior Plus, Non-Degree or Senior Plus.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
600 Level Courses
GCP 602: Global Financial Crises and Institutions. 3 credits.
Examines the modern financial sector: how it operates, its regulation, and its role in risk transmission and crisis formation. Reviews global financial markets and instruments. Considers the role of multilateral and regional financial institutions in management of crises, macroeconomic adjustment, development policy and capital flows with emphases on financial crises including the 2007-09 crisis.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Required Prerequisites: (ITRN 503B- or GCP 503B-).
B- Requires minimum grade of B-.
Enrollment limited to students with a class of Advanced to Candidacy, Graduate, Junior Plus, Non-Degree or Senior Plus.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 603: Global Trade Relations. 3 credits.
Examines U.S. trade policy in the context of global trade relations. Considers the global trading system from legal, institutional and political perspectives, giving particular attention to trade agencies in the United States and abroad, international agreements, and the World Trade Organization. Trade policy formation is analyzed within the context of competing interest groups and corporate strategies.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Required Prerequisites: (ITRN 504B- or GCP 504B-).
B- Requires minimum grade of B-.
Enrollment limited to students with a class of Advanced to Candidacy, Graduate, Junior Plus, Non-Degree or Senior Plus.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 604: New Technologies in the Global Economy. 3 credits.
Addresses the role and impact of new technologies on global trade, production, and finance. New technologies considered include digital, robotics, artificial intelligence, blockchain, machine learning, and virtual presence. Applications covered include global value chains, financial technology, cryptocurrencies and monetary policy, innovation management, logistics, and international development.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment limited to students with a class of Advanced to Candidacy, Graduate, Junior Plus, Non-Degree or Senior Plus.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 605: Technology, Culture and Commerce. 3 credits.
Examines and applies the major dimensions of technological and cultural analysis to global commerce and policy. The course assesses theories of technological change and cultural perspectives that have relevance to the flows of peoples, information, goods, capital and technology across national and cultural boundaries. It focuses on the political economy implications of technological change for commercial, national and global policies.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment limited to students with a class of Advanced to Candidacy, Graduate, Junior Plus, Non-Degree or Senior Plus.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 612: International Business Operations and the Multinational Corporation. 3 credits.
Examines international business environment and challenges facing companies in conducting operations in increasingly interconnected global marketplace. Focuses on issues of management and organization, and resolution of conflicts that may arise between business organizations and home and host governments. Also focuses on role of multinational corporations in international environment, and impact on global trade, economic development, and political system. Also studies trade and international investment theories and world financial environment. Explores broad issues such as sovereignty of decision making and global impact of business activities.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment limited to students with a class of Advanced to Candidacy, Graduate, Junior Plus, Non-Degree or Senior Plus.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
700 Level Courses
GCP 701: Special Topics in International Commerce and Policy. 1-3 credits.
Offers specialized courses on various aspects of international commerce and policy.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May be repeated within the term.
Specialized Designation: Topic Varies
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 702: Special Topics in International Commerce and Policy: Study Abroad. 3-6 credits.
Provides opportunity for study abroad under supervision of Mason faculty. Notes: Course topics, content, and locations vary.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May be repeated within the term for a maximum 12 credits.
Specialized Designation: Topic Varies
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 710: International Business Transactions: Finance and Investment. 3 credits.
Focuses on techniques for financing trade and payment methods, including letters of credit, counter trade, and other approaches. Covers issues of direct concern in financing international business operations, such as preparing financing proposals, risk insurance, international taxation, pricing policies, and currency conversion and foreign exchange risk management. Introduces foreign direct investment, alliances and acquisitions, joint ventures, and other methods for investing overseas.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 711: United States Law and Global Trade. 3 credits.
Surveys types of regulations imposed by United States, foreign governments, and international institutions on transnational business activities. Reviews principal regulatory bodies in United States and overseas, and powers and authorities. Covers tariffs and customs regulations; product safety and environmental restrictions; intellectual property, copyright, trademark, and patent regulations; and licensing rules. Also covers special restrictions that may be imposed because of political considerations such as embargoes, munitions controls, and antibribery and antiboycott regulations.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 712: World Trade Organization and Global Trade. 3 credits.
Focuses on legal aspects of international trade regulation by studying international legal and political regime established under WTO, and assessing impact of domestic economic legislation on U.S. trade regulations.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 715: Global Environment and the World Economy. 3 credits.
Examines growing relationship between environmental interdependence and developing world economy. Assesses increased globalization of environmental and health issues with a focus on the impact on those issues on international transactions involving trade and development. Attempts to develop an understanding of relationship of scientific knowledge to global environment in context of existing political and economic institutions. Emphasizes formulating and assessing policies and structures for corporations, nations, regions, and international organizations. Tensions among free trade, international competitiveness, and regulatory responses are central. Gives attention to practices of nations and international organizations, emerging forms of regional and international cooperation, and growing use of multilateral agreements.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 716: European Union in the International System. 3 credits.
Examines current developments in European market integration from global perspective. Emphasizes impact of single market, and proposed economic and monetary union of United States and other major trading partners. Examines European economic relations with Eastern Europe, former Soviet Union, and Lome Pact countries.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 720: Regional and Supranational Organizations. 3 credits.
Assesses role of international organizations in international system today, and focuses on wide range of international and regional economic and political institutions. Emphasizes changing nature of these organizations in relation to nation states, and relationship of international organizations to U.S. national security and economic interests.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 736: Sources of Growth in East Asia. 3 credits.
Examines extraordinary economic success of East Asian NIEs and some of their problems. Focuses on understanding proximate sources of growth, role of technological development, and salient political issues.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 738: Fundamentals of International Marketing. 3 credits.
Offers working knowledge of principles and practices that enable managers to effectively market organizations, products, services, and brands. Emphasizes international dimensions of marketing where appropriate.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 740: Trade and Regulatory Compliance. 3 credits.
Acquaints students with legal, regulatory, and practical issues in importation and exportation of merchandise. Topics include theoretical framework for government oversight of international movement of goods; legal issues between parties and governments; and practical guidance concerning structuring of import and export transactions to avoid legal and tariff liability.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 744: The Politics of International Competitiveness. 3 credits.
Provides inquiry into governance problems of public managers and political leaders as they cope with global competitiveness in post-industrial era. Focuses on integrating public and private sectors worldwide, with special emphasis on U.S. role and how it influences such areas as technology transfer, national security, electronic commerce, trade policies, money flows, and human resources.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Recommended Prerequisite: GCP 500
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 756: National Security and the Global Economy. 3 credits.
Examines impact of globalization and changes in international economic and political systems on concepts of national security. Emphasizes nexus of economic and security concerns in post-Cold War era, with particular attention to emerging issues including trade and economic security, proliferation of advanced military technology and control of weapons of mass destruction, international drug trafficking, and defense conversion. Focuses on implications of changing security requirements on U.S. defense and economic policy and activities.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Recommended Prerequisite: GCP 500
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 758: Global Market Planning Practicum. 3 credits.
Provides opportunity to develop international market plan for specific industry or service sector. Students consult with industry experts and use key trade databases to develop strategic plan that recommends market entry strategies. Completed market plan submitted to industry experts for use and dissemination.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 760: International Environmental Politics. 3 credits.
Examines growing concerns related to global environmental issues and problems they pose to domestic, foreign, and international political institutions. Covers major environmental issues including global warming, ozone depletion, cross-border flow of pollution, and threats to biodiversity. Assesses strengths and weaknesses of traditional political institutions in dealing with these issues and providing for sustainable economic development while limiting environmental damage.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Recommended Prerequisite: GCP 500
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 761: European Political and Economic Union. 3 credits.
Examines movement for European integration since World War II, focusing on political and institutional development of European Community/Union. Topics include theories of European integration, Treaties of Rome, Single European Act, Maastricht Treaty, European Union (EU) policies and programs, and EU's external relations. Analyzes changing nature of U.S.-EU relations and prospects for EU enlargement into Central and Eastern Europe.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 764: Trade, Investment, and Politics in East Asia. 3 credits.
Examines issues related to international transactions involving Korea, China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong, with some attention to Japan. Focuses on trade and financial relations between these East Asian nations and United States. Assesses impact of culture and domestic political and economic institutions within these states, and roles in regional institutions and in international system.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 765: Trade, Investment, and Politics in Sub-Saharan Africa. 3 credits.
Examines role and potential of sub-Saharan Africa in international trading system. Emphasizes political, historical, cultural, and development factors. Focuses on perspectives of U.S. firms and on international institutions trading or investing in region.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 766: Trade, Investment, and Politics in the Middle East and North Africa. 3 credits.
Examines major economic, political, and cultural issues that influence trade and investment relations with Middle East and North Africa. Focuses on roles of international and regional institutions in economic development, and develops understanding of challenges facing region and their implications for formulating trade and investment strategies by U.S. firms.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Recommended Prerequisite: GCP 500
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 767: Political Economy and Integration in Latin America. 3 credits.
Examines contemporary political, economic, and cultural dynamics of Latin American and Caribbean regions. Emphasizes issues and trends that affect U.S.-Latin American political, business, and trade relations, particularly recent political and economic reforms. Examines roles of domestic interest groups and decision-making systems in individual countries, and evolution of regional integration arrangements and integration with international system.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Required Prerequisites: (ITRN 503B-, GCP 503B-, ITRN 504B-, GCP 504B- or PUBP 720B-).
B- Requires minimum grade of B-.
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 768: Global Intellectual Property Rights and International Trade. 3 credits.
Examines national and regional systems, international contractual relations (licensing), and the evolving global system for protecting intellectual property. Addresses current international treaty system and the ongoing multilateral efforts to strengthen worldwide intellectual property protection. Examines intellectual property regimes worldwide, including regional and bilateral challenges and opportunities, and relevant U.S. law and policy responses.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Recommended Prerequisite: GCP 500
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 769: International Entrepreneurship. 3 credits.
Introduces practical planning approach for small and medium-size entrepreneurial firms seeking to enter international marketplace. Focuses on key business and financial documents related to doing business overseas; and assesses role of language, technology, and information systems in formulating successful business strategy. Role playing and simulated negotiations provide opportunities for students to sharpen business skills.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 770: International Contract Negotiation. 3 credits.
Reviews growing role of arbitration in international transactions. Examines international, national, and government arbitration bodies, with particular emphasis on how differing cultural characteristics affect negotiating behavior and effectiveness of arbitration.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 771: Trade, Investment, and Politics in South and Southeast Asia. 3 credits.
Focuses on trade and finance issues in the most dynamic countries of South and Southeast Asia. Assesses cultural and political factors, regional trade patterns, and institutions, focusing on implications for regional development and business opportunities for U.S. firms.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Recommended Prerequisite: GCP 500
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 772: International Telecommunications. 3 credits.
Focuses on developments in international telecommunications and satellite regulation. Examines regulatory environment, and business and financial aspects of global telecommunications industry.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 773: International Strategic Management. 3 credits.
Presents comprehensive approach to international strategy formulation, implementation, and evaluation processes affecting policy and program development within multinational firms and government agencies. Integrates marketing, finance, accounting, and management. Covers techniques for forecasting international business, political, economic, technological, legal, and sociocultural forces.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
GCP 791: Advanced Trade Policy. 3 credits.
Covers the microeconomics of international trade theory and trade policy analysis. Topics include theories of comparative advantage, factor movements, new trade theory, the gravity model, and trade in value added.Offered by Schar Govt/International Affrs. May not be repeated for credit.
Registration Restrictions:
Enrollment is limited to Graduate or Non-Degree level students.
Students in a Non-Degree Undergraduate degree may not enroll.
Schedule Type: Lecture
Grading:
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.
This course is graded on the Graduate Regular scale.